Zero Point Energy is defined as the lowest possible energy in a quantum system. Albert Einstein and Otto Stern first proposed it in 1913. It is believed that all quantum systems contain
zero point energy, or Nullpunktsenergie as it is known in German. Zero point is based on Planck’s constant. Using this, Einstein and Stern published a paper declaring that there is still
residual energy left over even when a system reaches absolute zero. Because this zero point energy exists even when all other energy is removed from the system, it is impossible for the
zero point energy to be taken out. This energy has been perceived as “free energy”, drawing the attention of many people interested in harnessing this energy for new inventions.
If zero point energy exists, then it must have a gravitational field. This poses an interesting scenario, as the amount of zero point in space is nearly infinitely large, so large that it could warp
the fabric of space and time. How could something which is so small, effect something on such a large scale? In any event, if zero point energy exists, then it would be invaluable in no methods
of propulsion and levitation.
Turbulence is defined as the disrupt of laminar flow. One type of turbulence is wake turbulence, which occurs when a wing shaped object is flying or moving through a liquid. An example of wake
turbulence is a submarine traveling through water or an airplane flying. A special circumstance of turbulence, which occurs with airplanes, is called a tip vortex. A tip vortex occurs at the very tip of
a wing as the air circulates around it because of the lift generated by the wings. This phenomenon explains why airplanes leave behind thing clouds as they fly.
A determining factor in Turbulence is Reynolds’s number. Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces, and can only be determined experimentally. If the Reynolds number of an
object is below 2100, it is considered laminar whereas if the number is 4000 or greater, it is turbulent.
The reduction of Reynolds’s number, and consequently turbulence, would be less drag. This would allow airplanes to travel much faster and with greater fuel efficiency, revolutionizing air travel.
Cataclysmic star systems are systems of two stars that orbit around each other and are bound by gravity. This is known as binary star system. In one of these systems, the brightest star is known
and the primary star while the other star is known as the secondary star. In a binary system, the stars will occasionally share a Roche lobe. A Roche lobe is the area of a star where the material is
bound to the star through gravity. There are several types of binary systems. A detached binary system is when there is no physical connection between both of the stars and they re both
spherically shaped, unless one of them is rotating unusually fast. The next type is semi-detached binary where one star has a full Roche lobe and slightly resembles an egg, and as a result
of the filled lobe, it begins to have some of its matter pulled away by the other star. The final type of binary system is a cintact binary system, where the two stars have full Roche lobes and
are either in contact or extremely close.
Star destruction is a phenomenon when huge stars cannot fuel themselves anymore, causing implosion, and massive amounts of energy to be released into space. The stars begin as white or
brown dwarfs, and then expand into super and hyper giants. Once there is not enough helium and hydrogen to fuel their expansion, they implode resulting in explosions large enough to destroy
our entire solar system. The scale at which these happen is nearly immeasurable and the destructive power they have is absurd. Because stars expand as they grow old, they begin to burn more
helium and hydrogen. As this happens, the core of the star begins to come in contact with the outer layers of the star. As this happens, the outer layer and thus the star cools and becomes less
bright. Depending on the initial mass of the star, it will then become a red giant or a red super giant. Thus, a star’s life span is determined by its original mass.
Sunday, 1 May 2011
Mental Time Travel [MTT]
1. INTRODUCTION
The term Mental time travel (MTT) has first been introduced by Suddendorf
and Corballis in 1997 and has since become an accepted and important topic of
research in the scientific community. MTT refers to the ability of humans to mentally
project themselves into the past or the future - to re-live or pre-live events[1].
It is therefore a remarkably flexible tool for humans to predict, plan and shape any
future situation. While, without a doubt, it provides a tremendous advantage for
natural selection, the purpose of many aspects of this ability still remain unclear,
as well as the fact, that it does not seem to have evolved in any other species (see
section 5). Whereas the systems and neural correlates for future travels have only
recently become subject of research, MTT to the past has been extensively studied
under a different name: episodic memory (EM).
2. A CLOSER DEFINITION OF MENTAL TIME TRAVEL
Before discussing MTT in detail, it should be clearly set apart from related, but
different, phenomena.
Let’s focus on past MTT for a moment, since for the memory systems, a widely
used taxonomy has already been formulated. Non-declarative memory (e.g. conditioning)
may also serve as a predictor of the near future, but it is bound to the
perception of stimuli. This bottom-up system through perception clearly does not
belong into the domain of MTT. Declarative memory on the other hand, is a topdown
system, not bound to perception and provides a greater flexibility. It is further
divided into semantic and episodic memory: Whereas the episodic memory contains
the personal experience of an event, the semantic memory merely holds the
knowledge extracted from this event. Recollecting where and when one has learned
about an information, is different from solely knowing that fact. This property of
the episodic memory has been named autonoetic consciousness by Tulving (1985)
and is essentially what MTT is about. In addition to retrospection however, Suddendorf
proposed that there is also a prospective counterpart to episodic memory -
therefore forming the notion of MTT as the capacity to both re- and pre-experience
personal events[1]. Whether or not it is valid (in a neuroanatomical view) to merge
those two abilities into one system is discussed in section 4.
For further clarification, it is helpful to look at some psychological notions that
might be confused with MTT. For example, daydreaming (mind wandering) may
involve MTT, but does not necessarily involve the self as a character. It can rather
contain purely fictitious characters and improbable events. Similarly, prospective
memory, defined as “memory for actions to be performed in the future such as
remembering to give a message to a friend or remembering to take medication”[2],
does not require the person pre-living the task.
3. METHODS OF INVESTIGATING MENTAL TIME TRAVEL
A classical approach in memory research is the use of questionnaires, which is
still the only viable method for numerous research aims. For instance, Berntsen
(2008) could show that involuntary MTT occurs frequently in daily life, simply by
equipping her participants with a notebook and instructions to take notes of time
travel occurrences[2]. In contrast, even sophisticated imaging experiments focused
only on well controlled, voluntary MTT. Questionnaires certainly contain a great
deal of difficulties, such as the requirement for cooperation and reliability of the
subjects or the objective judgment of the highly heterogeneous data. However they
can provide unique information about the content of mental representations, the
environmental stimuli triggering MTT or the impact on mood.
In brain imaging experiments, the subject is usually presented with stimuli (e.g.
key words) for which he or she has to imagine a past or future event. The recorded
information, depending on the task, can contain a combination of behavioural data
(reaction time, error rate) and different imaging methods, usually EEG, PET or
fMRI. Due to their coarse temporal resolution, PET and fMRI cannot provide precise
information about the temporal activity pattern but can provide the brain regions
involved with high spatial resolution. For identifying the dynamics of activity,
EEG is the method of choice (usually measuring slow cortical potentials (SCP)
or evoked potentials)[3].
4. NEURAL CORRELATES OF MENTAL TIME TRAVEL
In the past, functional MRI studies have thoroughly identified the brain regions
involved in autobiographical memory. Recent research comparing future with past
MTT has found the same patterns of activity as in those previous studies. Therefore
supporting the view of a common neuronal system for both past and future
MTT, which might be counter intuitive, due to the fundamental asymmetry of those
two components (past is fact whereas future is fiction). The fMRI results involve
a widespread left-predominant cerebral activity and three regions with particular
high activation: The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the medial temporal lobes
(particularly the hippocampi) and posterior regions [4]. Using sophisticated analysis
methods, EEG measurements can also be applied to create a voltage topography
map (evoked potential map), which in a recent study by Arzy et al. (2008) has
shown to be consistent with the regions described in fMRI studies. In particular,
three regions could be localized that are activated 300-600 ms after stimulus onset
(i.e. a key word as mentioned earlier): The left anteromedial temporal cortex, the
right temporoparietal junction and the occipitotemporal cortex [5]. Surprisingly,
he did not mention prefrontal regions anywhere in this study. Most likely, they are
important at a later stage in the MTT process.
The left hippocampus is related to the retrieval of context-dependent autobiographical
memory, i.e. it acts as an index-like code to retrieve storage of personal
specific events from different cortical sites. Unlike the right hippocampus which is
only associated with place context, the left hippocampus is involved in both place
and person conditions. It is therefore interpretable as a necessary first step to create
the representation of a past or future event [4]. The occipitotemporal cortex is
known to be involved in recall through visual imagery and clinical studies have described
amnesia with damage to this structure. The temporoparietal junction plays a crucial role in self-other distinction, self-location in space and - with this new data - also self-location in time [5].
Though minor differences in activity patterns between past and future MTT
could be observed using EP mapping, I will focus on the measurement of slow
cortical potentials (negative potential shifts at the scalp, reflecting activation of underlying
cortical regions) to illustrate this difference. By measuring SCPs during
the generation of experienced or imagined mental representations, it is possible to
clearly distinguish those two components of MTT. Experienced memories were associated
with significantly larger negative dc shifts over occipito-temporal regions,
reflecting the access of autobiographical imagery. In contrast, a more intense activation
of the left PFC for imagined events was observed, which may reflect the
generation of generic imagery in those networks [3].
In light of recent research, it is therefore hypothesized that MTT does not only
involve memory mechanisms, but mechanisms of mental imagery and self-location
as well [5].
Many of the brain regions discussed here, have undergone profound developments
that are unique for humans, therefore neurophysiological results may support
the view that animals are not capable of MTT. A matter that will be discussed
next.
5. MENTAL TIME TRAVEL IN ANIMALS?
Evolutionary considerations.
An evolutionary explanation for MTT, in particularfor episodic memory, cannot easily be provided. EM is highly selective and retains only a tiny fraction of experiences (you may encounter dozens of people each day,
but only remember a few). At the same time, a vast amount of details such as
the precise location in space and time, the weather conditions, the persons present,
the words exchanged, and so forth are remembered. In a comment to Suddendorfs
work, Dessalles described it as a “waste of storage” in a computational perspective,
since it does not allow generalization of the learned content (as in semantic memory)
and it is highly unlikely that a person will ever encounter a situation matching
all those parameters again [1]. An other astonishing fact is, that much of our cortical
mass is devoted to EM, making it a seemingly important system. At the same
time, its constructive nature makes it prone to errors and even in intact systems
autobiographical memories can be entirely false (confabulation), let alone in cases
of amnesia where EM is the most vulnerable, fragile system [3].
The closely related brain areas and the similarities between past and future MTT
might explain EM as a side-effect or prerequisite (providing the raw-material) for
creating mental presentations of the future (which in an evolutionary point of view
are obviously more valuable). As with other human attributes, such as theory of
mind or language, MTT is considered a product of the hominins being forced into
a “cognitive niche” by danger from predators as a result of climate changes 2.5
million years ago [1].
Animal research
Any research about cognitive evolution has the intrinsic problem,
that we can only observe animal behaviour, but we can never know what their
mental state is, i.e. whether they are mentally time traveling anywhere.
Experimenting with episodic memory is especially challenging, since the result
is never conclusive. Previously, animals could be shown to perform extraordinarily
on certain memory tasks, but simply knowing something does not imply that
the animal actually remembers when and where it has acquired this knowledge.
Thus, future MTT is suggested to be the more promising subject of research, since
it would essentially provide the selective advantage and hence be visible to evolution
(or clever researchers) [1]. The Bischof-Köhler hypothesis (1985) states, that
animals can only act on present needs or drive states, as opposed to future needs.
At first sight, this seems incorrect as exemplified by the caching of food, the manufacturing
of tools by some animals or other spectacular accomplishments under
experimental conditions. However, I will refrain from quoting any of this previous
work, since a closer examination of the results always allows alternative explanations
based on instinct or associative learning. Thus far, in more personal, flexible
situations involving non-instinctive behaviours, the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis has
not yet been falsified. A nonverbal test for MTT has to meet many criteria, such as
controlling the current need state (e.g. that the animal is not thirsty at the present)
and providing the opportunity to to secure a future need (e.g. obtaining a drink for
a thirst inducing future situation) involving species-untypical behaviour [1].
Sophisticated experiments are presently carried out and fascinating new insights
are to be expected in the near future.
The term Mental time travel (MTT) has first been introduced by Suddendorf
and Corballis in 1997 and has since become an accepted and important topic of
research in the scientific community. MTT refers to the ability of humans to mentally
project themselves into the past or the future - to re-live or pre-live events[1].
It is therefore a remarkably flexible tool for humans to predict, plan and shape any
future situation. While, without a doubt, it provides a tremendous advantage for
natural selection, the purpose of many aspects of this ability still remain unclear,
as well as the fact, that it does not seem to have evolved in any other species (see
section 5). Whereas the systems and neural correlates for future travels have only
recently become subject of research, MTT to the past has been extensively studied
under a different name: episodic memory (EM).
2. A CLOSER DEFINITION OF MENTAL TIME TRAVEL
Before discussing MTT in detail, it should be clearly set apart from related, but
different, phenomena.
Let’s focus on past MTT for a moment, since for the memory systems, a widely
used taxonomy has already been formulated. Non-declarative memory (e.g. conditioning)
may also serve as a predictor of the near future, but it is bound to the
perception of stimuli. This bottom-up system through perception clearly does not
belong into the domain of MTT. Declarative memory on the other hand, is a topdown
system, not bound to perception and provides a greater flexibility. It is further
divided into semantic and episodic memory: Whereas the episodic memory contains
the personal experience of an event, the semantic memory merely holds the
knowledge extracted from this event. Recollecting where and when one has learned
about an information, is different from solely knowing that fact. This property of
the episodic memory has been named autonoetic consciousness by Tulving (1985)
and is essentially what MTT is about. In addition to retrospection however, Suddendorf
proposed that there is also a prospective counterpart to episodic memory -
therefore forming the notion of MTT as the capacity to both re- and pre-experience
personal events[1]. Whether or not it is valid (in a neuroanatomical view) to merge
those two abilities into one system is discussed in section 4.
For further clarification, it is helpful to look at some psychological notions that
might be confused with MTT. For example, daydreaming (mind wandering) may
involve MTT, but does not necessarily involve the self as a character. It can rather
contain purely fictitious characters and improbable events. Similarly, prospective
memory, defined as “memory for actions to be performed in the future such as
remembering to give a message to a friend or remembering to take medication”[2],
does not require the person pre-living the task.
3. METHODS OF INVESTIGATING MENTAL TIME TRAVEL
A classical approach in memory research is the use of questionnaires, which is
still the only viable method for numerous research aims. For instance, Berntsen
(2008) could show that involuntary MTT occurs frequently in daily life, simply by
equipping her participants with a notebook and instructions to take notes of time
travel occurrences[2]. In contrast, even sophisticated imaging experiments focused
only on well controlled, voluntary MTT. Questionnaires certainly contain a great
deal of difficulties, such as the requirement for cooperation and reliability of the
subjects or the objective judgment of the highly heterogeneous data. However they
can provide unique information about the content of mental representations, the
environmental stimuli triggering MTT or the impact on mood.
In brain imaging experiments, the subject is usually presented with stimuli (e.g.
key words) for which he or she has to imagine a past or future event. The recorded
information, depending on the task, can contain a combination of behavioural data
(reaction time, error rate) and different imaging methods, usually EEG, PET or
fMRI. Due to their coarse temporal resolution, PET and fMRI cannot provide precise
information about the temporal activity pattern but can provide the brain regions
involved with high spatial resolution. For identifying the dynamics of activity,
EEG is the method of choice (usually measuring slow cortical potentials (SCP)
or evoked potentials)[3].
4. NEURAL CORRELATES OF MENTAL TIME TRAVEL
In the past, functional MRI studies have thoroughly identified the brain regions
involved in autobiographical memory. Recent research comparing future with past
MTT has found the same patterns of activity as in those previous studies. Therefore
supporting the view of a common neuronal system for both past and future
MTT, which might be counter intuitive, due to the fundamental asymmetry of those
two components (past is fact whereas future is fiction). The fMRI results involve
a widespread left-predominant cerebral activity and three regions with particular
high activation: The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the medial temporal lobes
(particularly the hippocampi) and posterior regions [4]. Using sophisticated analysis
methods, EEG measurements can also be applied to create a voltage topography
map (evoked potential map), which in a recent study by Arzy et al. (2008) has
shown to be consistent with the regions described in fMRI studies. In particular,
three regions could be localized that are activated 300-600 ms after stimulus onset
(i.e. a key word as mentioned earlier): The left anteromedial temporal cortex, the
right temporoparietal junction and the occipitotemporal cortex [5]. Surprisingly,
he did not mention prefrontal regions anywhere in this study. Most likely, they are
important at a later stage in the MTT process.
The left hippocampus is related to the retrieval of context-dependent autobiographical
memory, i.e. it acts as an index-like code to retrieve storage of personal
specific events from different cortical sites. Unlike the right hippocampus which is
only associated with place context, the left hippocampus is involved in both place
and person conditions. It is therefore interpretable as a necessary first step to create
the representation of a past or future event [4]. The occipitotemporal cortex is
known to be involved in recall through visual imagery and clinical studies have described
amnesia with damage to this structure. The temporoparietal junction plays a crucial role in self-other distinction, self-location in space and - with this new data - also self-location in time [5].
Though minor differences in activity patterns between past and future MTT
could be observed using EP mapping, I will focus on the measurement of slow
cortical potentials (negative potential shifts at the scalp, reflecting activation of underlying
cortical regions) to illustrate this difference. By measuring SCPs during
the generation of experienced or imagined mental representations, it is possible to
clearly distinguish those two components of MTT. Experienced memories were associated
with significantly larger negative dc shifts over occipito-temporal regions,
reflecting the access of autobiographical imagery. In contrast, a more intense activation
of the left PFC for imagined events was observed, which may reflect the
generation of generic imagery in those networks [3].
In light of recent research, it is therefore hypothesized that MTT does not only
involve memory mechanisms, but mechanisms of mental imagery and self-location
as well [5].
Many of the brain regions discussed here, have undergone profound developments
that are unique for humans, therefore neurophysiological results may support
the view that animals are not capable of MTT. A matter that will be discussed
next.
5. MENTAL TIME TRAVEL IN ANIMALS?
Evolutionary considerations.
An evolutionary explanation for MTT, in particularfor episodic memory, cannot easily be provided. EM is highly selective and retains only a tiny fraction of experiences (you may encounter dozens of people each day,
but only remember a few). At the same time, a vast amount of details such as
the precise location in space and time, the weather conditions, the persons present,
the words exchanged, and so forth are remembered. In a comment to Suddendorfs
work, Dessalles described it as a “waste of storage” in a computational perspective,
since it does not allow generalization of the learned content (as in semantic memory)
and it is highly unlikely that a person will ever encounter a situation matching
all those parameters again [1]. An other astonishing fact is, that much of our cortical
mass is devoted to EM, making it a seemingly important system. At the same
time, its constructive nature makes it prone to errors and even in intact systems
autobiographical memories can be entirely false (confabulation), let alone in cases
of amnesia where EM is the most vulnerable, fragile system [3].
The closely related brain areas and the similarities between past and future MTT
might explain EM as a side-effect or prerequisite (providing the raw-material) for
creating mental presentations of the future (which in an evolutionary point of view
are obviously more valuable). As with other human attributes, such as theory of
mind or language, MTT is considered a product of the hominins being forced into
a “cognitive niche” by danger from predators as a result of climate changes 2.5
million years ago [1].
Animal research
Any research about cognitive evolution has the intrinsic problem,
that we can only observe animal behaviour, but we can never know what their
mental state is, i.e. whether they are mentally time traveling anywhere.
Experimenting with episodic memory is especially challenging, since the result
is never conclusive. Previously, animals could be shown to perform extraordinarily
on certain memory tasks, but simply knowing something does not imply that
the animal actually remembers when and where it has acquired this knowledge.
Thus, future MTT is suggested to be the more promising subject of research, since
it would essentially provide the selective advantage and hence be visible to evolution
(or clever researchers) [1]. The Bischof-Köhler hypothesis (1985) states, that
animals can only act on present needs or drive states, as opposed to future needs.
At first sight, this seems incorrect as exemplified by the caching of food, the manufacturing
of tools by some animals or other spectacular accomplishments under
experimental conditions. However, I will refrain from quoting any of this previous
work, since a closer examination of the results always allows alternative explanations
based on instinct or associative learning. Thus far, in more personal, flexible
situations involving non-instinctive behaviours, the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis has
not yet been falsified. A nonverbal test for MTT has to meet many criteria, such as
controlling the current need state (e.g. that the animal is not thirsty at the present)
and providing the opportunity to to secure a future need (e.g. obtaining a drink for
a thirst inducing future situation) involving species-untypical behaviour [1].
Sophisticated experiments are presently carried out and fascinating new insights
are to be expected in the near future.
Language Facts
The shortest word in the English language with all its letters in alphabetical order is the word "almost."
The Philippines has more than 1,000 regional dialects and two official languages.
The only MLB team to have both its city's name and its team name in a foreign language is the San Diego Padres.
The longest word in the Finnish language, that isn't a compound word, is 'epaejaerjestelmaellistyttaemaettoemyydellaensaekaeaen'. In English it means 'even with their lack of ability to disorganize'.
The longest word in the English language, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis. The only other word with the same amount of letters ispneumonoultra-microscopicsilicovolcanoconioses, its plural.
The longest word in the English language is 1909 letters long and it refers to a distinct part of DNA.
The longest one syllable word in he English language is "screeched".
The letter most in use in the English language is "E" and the letter "Q" is least used.
The computer programming language ADA was named in honor of Augusta Ada King. The U.S. Defense Department named the language after the Countess of Lovelace and daughter of Lord Byron because she helped finance and program what is thought to be the first computer, the “analytical engine” designed by Charles Babbage.
The Chinese language does not require punctuation.
The "huddle" in football was formed due a deaf football player who used sign language to communicate and his team didn't want the opposition to see the signals he used and in turn huddled around him.
South Africa used to have two official languages, now it has eleven.
Some biblical scholars believe that Aramaic (the language of the ancient Bible) did not contain an easy way to say 'many things' and used a term which has come down to us as 40. This means that when the bible -in many places -refers to '40 days,' they meant many days.
Seoul, the South Korean capital, just means "the capital" in the Korean language.
Rudyard Kipling was fired as a reporter for the San Francisco Examiner. His dismissal letter was reported to have said, "I'm sorry, Mr. Kipling, but you just don't know how to use the English language. This isn't a kindergarten for amateur writers."
According to Illinois state law, it is illegal to speak English. The officially recognized language is "American."
Widow is the only female form in the English language that is shorter than its corresponding male term (widower).
Victor Hugo's Les Miserable contains one of the longest sentences in the French language 823 words without a period.
There is only ONE word in the English language with THREE CONSECUTIVE SETS OF DOUBLE LETTERS.... Bookkeeper
There is a word in the English language with only one vowel, which occurs five times: "indivisibility."
There is a seven letter word in the English language that contains ten words without rearranging any of its letters, "therein": the, there, he, in, rein, her, here, ere, therein, herein.
There are two words in the English language that have all five vowels in order: "abstemious" and "facetious."
There are thirteen languages spoken by more than 100 million people. They are: Mandarin Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, Bengali, Portuguese, Malay-Indonesian, French, Japanese, German, and Urdu.
There are roughly 6,500 spoken languages in the world today. However, about 2,000 of those languages have fewer than 1,000 speakers. The most widely spoken language in the world is Mandarin Chinese. There are 885,000,000 people in China that speak that language.
There are only two sequences of four consecutive letters that can be found in the English language: "rstu" and "mnop." Examples of each are understudy and gynophobia.
There are only 4 words in the English language which end in "duos": tremendous, horrendous, stupendous, and hazardous.
There are at least two words in the English language that use all of the vowels, in the correct order, and end in the letter Y: abstemiously & facetiously.
There are 41,806 different spoken languages in the world today.
The word "queue" is the only word in the English language that is still pronounced the same way when the last four letters are removed.
The word "honcho" comes from a Japanese word meaning "squad leader" and first came into usage in the English language during the American occupation of Japan following World War II.
Out of all the eight letter words in the English language, only one has only one vowel in it: "strength"
Only 3 words in the English language end in "ceed": "proceed," "exceed," and "succeed."
On June 26th, 1945, the charter of the United Nations was signed by 50 countries in San Francisco. (The text of the charter was in five languages: Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.)
Of all the words in the English language, the word "set" has the most definitions.
Of all the languages in the world, English has the largest vocabulary about 800,000 words.
No word in the English language rhymes with month, orange, silver, or purple.
No language has more synonyms than English.
Latin is a dead language.
In Vulcan, Alberta Canada, the tourist welcome sign is written in both English and Klingon (alien language from “Star Trek”).
French was the official language of England for over 600 years.
Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, has been translated into more languages than any book outside of the Bible.
According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the Finnish word SAIPPUAKIVIKAUPPIAS a soapstone seller is the longest known palindrome in any language.
"Underground" is the only word in the English language that begins and ends with the letters "und."
"The sixth sick sheik's sixth sheep's sick" is said to be the toughest tongue twister in English.
"Four" is the only number whose number of letters in the name equals the number.
"Forty" is the only number which has its letters in alphabetical order. "One" is the only number with its letters in reverse alphabetical order.
"Rhythms" is the longest English word without the normal vowels, a, e, i, o, or u.
Many languages in Africa include a “click” sound that is pronounced at the same time as other sounds. You must learn these languages in childhood to do it properly.
More than 1,000 different languages are spoken on the continent of Africa.
There is no word that rhymes with purple.
The most common letters in English are
R S T L N E.
Pinocchio is Italian for "pine head."
There is no word that rhymes with orange.
It has been estimated that the number of actively spoken languages in the world today is about 6,000.
The language of a society changes slowly but steadily with the result that an educated person will not be able to read or understand words in his language written 500 years ago.
No word in the English language rhymes with"month".
"Go." is the shortest complete sentence in the English language.
Of all the words in the English language, the word ' set ' has the most definitions!
The language in which a government conducts business is the official language of that country.
Somalia is the only African country in which the entire population speaks the same language, Somali.
All pilots on international flights identify themselves in English.
The most difficult language to learn is Basque, which is spoken in northwestern Spain and southwestern France.
There are more than 2,700 languages in the world. In addition, there are more than 7,000 dialects
The Philippines has more than 1,000 regional dialects and two official languages.
The only MLB team to have both its city's name and its team name in a foreign language is the San Diego Padres.
The longest word in the Finnish language, that isn't a compound word, is 'epaejaerjestelmaellistyttaemaettoemyydellaensaekaeaen'. In English it means 'even with their lack of ability to disorganize'.
The longest word in the English language, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis. The only other word with the same amount of letters ispneumonoultra-microscopicsilicovolcanoconioses, its plural.
The longest word in the English language is 1909 letters long and it refers to a distinct part of DNA.
The longest one syllable word in he English language is "screeched".
The letter most in use in the English language is "E" and the letter "Q" is least used.
The computer programming language ADA was named in honor of Augusta Ada King. The U.S. Defense Department named the language after the Countess of Lovelace and daughter of Lord Byron because she helped finance and program what is thought to be the first computer, the “analytical engine” designed by Charles Babbage.
The Chinese language does not require punctuation.
The "huddle" in football was formed due a deaf football player who used sign language to communicate and his team didn't want the opposition to see the signals he used and in turn huddled around him.
South Africa used to have two official languages, now it has eleven.
Some biblical scholars believe that Aramaic (the language of the ancient Bible) did not contain an easy way to say 'many things' and used a term which has come down to us as 40. This means that when the bible -in many places -refers to '40 days,' they meant many days.
Seoul, the South Korean capital, just means "the capital" in the Korean language.
Rudyard Kipling was fired as a reporter for the San Francisco Examiner. His dismissal letter was reported to have said, "I'm sorry, Mr. Kipling, but you just don't know how to use the English language. This isn't a kindergarten for amateur writers."
According to Illinois state law, it is illegal to speak English. The officially recognized language is "American."
Widow is the only female form in the English language that is shorter than its corresponding male term (widower).
Victor Hugo's Les Miserable contains one of the longest sentences in the French language 823 words without a period.
There is only ONE word in the English language with THREE CONSECUTIVE SETS OF DOUBLE LETTERS.... Bookkeeper
There is a word in the English language with only one vowel, which occurs five times: "indivisibility."
There is a seven letter word in the English language that contains ten words without rearranging any of its letters, "therein": the, there, he, in, rein, her, here, ere, therein, herein.
There are two words in the English language that have all five vowels in order: "abstemious" and "facetious."
There are thirteen languages spoken by more than 100 million people. They are: Mandarin Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, Bengali, Portuguese, Malay-Indonesian, French, Japanese, German, and Urdu.
There are roughly 6,500 spoken languages in the world today. However, about 2,000 of those languages have fewer than 1,000 speakers. The most widely spoken language in the world is Mandarin Chinese. There are 885,000,000 people in China that speak that language.
There are only two sequences of four consecutive letters that can be found in the English language: "rstu" and "mnop." Examples of each are understudy and gynophobia.
There are only 4 words in the English language which end in "duos": tremendous, horrendous, stupendous, and hazardous.
There are at least two words in the English language that use all of the vowels, in the correct order, and end in the letter Y: abstemiously & facetiously.
There are 41,806 different spoken languages in the world today.
The word "queue" is the only word in the English language that is still pronounced the same way when the last four letters are removed.
The word "honcho" comes from a Japanese word meaning "squad leader" and first came into usage in the English language during the American occupation of Japan following World War II.
Out of all the eight letter words in the English language, only one has only one vowel in it: "strength"
Only 3 words in the English language end in "ceed": "proceed," "exceed," and "succeed."
On June 26th, 1945, the charter of the United Nations was signed by 50 countries in San Francisco. (The text of the charter was in five languages: Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.)
Of all the words in the English language, the word "set" has the most definitions.
Of all the languages in the world, English has the largest vocabulary about 800,000 words.
No word in the English language rhymes with month, orange, silver, or purple.
No language has more synonyms than English.
Latin is a dead language.
In Vulcan, Alberta Canada, the tourist welcome sign is written in both English and Klingon (alien language from “Star Trek”).
French was the official language of England for over 600 years.
Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, has been translated into more languages than any book outside of the Bible.
According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the Finnish word SAIPPUAKIVIKAUPPIAS a soapstone seller is the longest known palindrome in any language.
"Underground" is the only word in the English language that begins and ends with the letters "und."
"The sixth sick sheik's sixth sheep's sick" is said to be the toughest tongue twister in English.
"Four" is the only number whose number of letters in the name equals the number.
"Forty" is the only number which has its letters in alphabetical order. "One" is the only number with its letters in reverse alphabetical order.
"Rhythms" is the longest English word without the normal vowels, a, e, i, o, or u.
Many languages in Africa include a “click” sound that is pronounced at the same time as other sounds. You must learn these languages in childhood to do it properly.
More than 1,000 different languages are spoken on the continent of Africa.
There is no word that rhymes with purple.
The most common letters in English are
R S T L N E.
Pinocchio is Italian for "pine head."
There is no word that rhymes with orange.
It has been estimated that the number of actively spoken languages in the world today is about 6,000.
The language of a society changes slowly but steadily with the result that an educated person will not be able to read or understand words in his language written 500 years ago.
No word in the English language rhymes with"month".
"Go." is the shortest complete sentence in the English language.
Of all the words in the English language, the word ' set ' has the most definitions!
The language in which a government conducts business is the official language of that country.
Somalia is the only African country in which the entire population speaks the same language, Somali.
All pilots on international flights identify themselves in English.
The most difficult language to learn is Basque, which is spoken in northwestern Spain and southwestern France.
There are more than 2,700 languages in the world. In addition, there are more than 7,000 dialects
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